The Landscape of the Science in the History (7)

Edmond Halley was the second Astronomer Royal. His observations were published in “Catalogus stellarum australium” (star maps). In his 1705 “A synopsis of the astronomy of comets” Halley concluded the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same comet and that it would return in 1758. It became known as Halley’s Comet. He later explained geomagnetic phenomena including auroras. One of the most famous scientists of all time.

Wilhelm Leibniz worked intensively with symbolic logic. Along with Sir Isaac Newton, he developed the differential and infinitesimal calculus, introduced the integral sign, built a calculating machine (in 1672) which could multiply, divide and extract square roots, developed the dual system (precursor of modern computer technology), invented a device to measure wind and drafted plans for submarines!

Isaac Newton was an introverted genius and child prodigy. As a child student in Cambridge Isaac Newton revolutionized the fields of mathematics (calculus), optics (color theory) and mechanics (universal gravitation, formulated after an apple fell from a tree hitting him on the head). Later Newton calculated Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, lunar orbit and tides, described the “binomial theorem“, devised formulas for calculating sound velocity and the penetrative power of missiles. In order to avoid frequent disturbances by his cat, he even developed the cat flap. Newton’s greatest work was the “Prinicipia Mathematica” in 1687. Newton is one of the most famous scientists of all time.

Together with Robert Boyle, Hooke improved the air pump devised by Otto von Guericke (1602-1686), developed special microscopes with which he discovered plant cells (named after him).

Jack of all trades. Discovered the rings of Saturn with a self-made telescope, constructed new pendant and pocket watches, explained the theory of probability, described the so-called impact law, founded a new theory of light and dealt with vibration and circular motion (centrifugal force).

Robert Boyle was one of Britains most famous scientists. Boyle explored the properties of air and gases and discovered that (at a constant temperature) pressure and volume are inversely proportional to one another. He confirmed Galileo’s “Free fall” law, defined the term “analysis” (Greek: “resolution”), found acids and bases and, in doing so, discovered acetone and methanol. Was also the first to isolate oxygen. His major work: “The skeptical chymist” (1661).

Giovanni Cassini measured the rotational period of Mars and Jupiter. He discovered four moons of Saturn; Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys and Dione and the Cassini division -the black gap in the rings of Saturn. NASA named its 1997 satellite, which orbited Saturn and its moons, after Cassini. In 1672 Cassini, in Paris, and Jean Richer, in French Guiana, made simultaneous observations of Mars. They used the principle of parallax to calculate the distance between Earth and Mars. Together with existing planetary distances and ratios Cassini calculated the size of the Solar System.

Blaise Pascal proved the existence of the vacuum. His experiment known as “Vacuum in the vacuum” placed a mercury barometer in the center of another barometer. The Frenchman also discovered that air pressure decreases with height. Pascal was also a co-founder of probability theory.

Pierre de Fermat was a lawyer who only dabbled with mathematics in his spare time. He remained unknown during his lifetime. It was only after his death that other greatest scientists spotted the basics of analytic geometry in his writings which he had found independently of René Descartes. Fermat is also renowned for his “Fermat’s Last Theorem” which says that no triples of whole numbers satisfy the equation xn + yn = zn has no whole number solution when n is greater than 2.

René Descartes was one of France’s most famous scientists. He was regarded, along with Pierre de Fermat (1607-1665) as one of the fathers of analytic geometry. He was a leading figure in the scientific revolution. Descartes set new standards with his work on dynamics, optics and astronomy. Descartes’ most famous quote is:I think; therefore I am (cogito ergo sum)

Johannes Kepler discovered the laws of planetary motion (ellipses) and recorded a profile of star orbits. His calculations used integrals and logarithms for the first time. Kepler also confirmed discoveries made by Galileo Galilei.

Galileo Galilei is the founder of the fields of dynamics mechanics and acoustics. He discovered the laws of falling bodies, ballistics and pendulums, and confirmed Copernicus‘ heliocentric view of the world through astronomical observations using a telescope he’d also improved. In this way, he first saw the moon’s surface and many other stars. The scientific genius also examined gases and proved that air has a weight of its own and is, therefore, also matter. One of the most famous scientists of all time.

Simon Stevin is the founder of modern statics and hydrostatics. Stevin formulated the law of forces; the “hydrostatic paradox” and other laws such as the relationship between force and displacement on an inclined plane.

William Gilbert realized the Earth itself is magnetic and that our planet has two (and not, as originally thought one) magnetic poles. Born in Colchester, Essex, England. Gilbert investigated electricity and developed the first electroscope for measuring electricity.

Vieta introduced letters, fraction bars, the root sign and parentheses into mathematics in order to simplify calculations and make formulas more understandable. Thomas Harriot (1560-1621) replaced Vieta’s large letters with small ones, thus founding modern algebraic notation.

Vesalius conducted dissections as a student already and by the age of 23 was a professor of surgery. He wrote seven books about the anatomy of the human body and was later also the personal physician of Emperor Charles V of Spain.

Ambroise Paré is considered the founder of modern surgery. Paré found new ways of treating gunshot wounds, fractures and amputations (through ligation of the vessels). Among other things, Paré was surgeon to four French kings.

Nicolaus Copernicus shattered the old worldview in 1543. Copernicus found the Earth, which rotates on its own axis every 24 hours, is one of many planets revolving around the fixed sun. He further concluded the moon rotates in circular orbits around the Earth and that fixed stars don’t move.

Leonardo da Vinci was not only an artistic genius but also a doctor, architect, astronomer and engineer. His irrepressible curiosity drove him to explore (almost) everything and is one of the best known famous scientists. Da Vinci studied humankind and nature and drew hundreds of anatomical drawings. He developed hydraulics, supervised the construction of canals, locks and aqueducts, and is considered the inventor of portable bridges, flamethrowers, tanks, submarines, parachutes as well as tools such as levers, saws, heating and lighting systems.

Leon Battista Alberti was a versatile talent. He studied physics, mathematics, law and art. He was also an inventor, architect and author in several languages. He was a talented rider, athlete, musician and composer.

Albert Magnus was one of the founders of modern science. He described a large number of plants “De vegetabilibus” and animals and insects “De animalibus“. Magnus was also a bishop and teacher of the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas.